• icon+265(0)111 624 222
  • iconresearch@unima.ac.mw
  • iconChirunga-Zomba, Malawi

Are you a UNIMA researcher? Login

Regulating Money


Author(s) : Sunduzwayo Madise
Palgrave Macmillan Studies in Banking and Financial Institutions

Abstract


This chapter analyses the regulation of money. It looks at regulation of the financial sector and the roles of central banks and financial regulators especially post the 2007 financial crisis. It looks at approaches useful in regulating mobile money and the unique challenges that regulating such an emerging service may pose. Mobile money is a financial service and a telecommunications service, straddling between the financial and communications regulators. The hybrid nature of the mobile money services therefore requires a different regulatory approach. The chapter notes that light-touch regulation has been used as the preferred model for mobile money. The chapter however argues that real responsive regulation is the approach that embraces the evolution of mobile money and its ecosystem.


Original language en
Pages (from-to) 149-200
Publication status Published - 2019
    1. . .
      Adam Phiri (2016) ‘Finance Bank in K3 billion case’ The Times (3 February 2016), http://www.times.mw/finance-bank-in-k3-billion-case/ . 9 March 2018.
    2. . .
      AFI (2010) Enabling Mobile Money Transfer: The Central Bank of Kenya’s Treatment of M-Pesa (Alliance for Financial Inclusion), http://www.gsma.com/mobilefordevelopment/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/enablingmobilemoneytransfer92.pdf . 15 December 2018.
    3. . .
      Airtel (2013c) ‘About Airtel Money’ (Airtel Malaŵi), http://africa.airtel.com/wps/wcm/connect/AfricaRevamp/Malawi/Airtel_Money/Home/Personal/About_airtel_money . 23 March 2018.
    4. . .
      Alexander P Reed Jr (1998) Money and the Global Economy (Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge).
    5. . .
      Amrik Heyer and Ignacio Mas (2009) Seeking Fertile Grounds for Mobile Money (Mobile Money for the Unbanked, GSMA, London), http://www.gsma.com/mobilefordevelopment/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/fertile_grounds_mobile_money55.pdf . 14 February 2018.
    6. . .
      Andrew Campbell and Rosa Lastra (2009) ‘Revisiting the Lender of Last Resort’ 24 (3) Banking and Finance Law Review 453,   http://0-search.proquest.com.pugwash.lib.warwick.ac.uk/docview/218867839?accountid=14888 . 10 December 2018.
    7. . .
      Andrew England (2016) ‘Zimbabwe to Print “Bond Notes” to Tackle Cash Shortage’ Financial Times (5 May 2016), http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/90a66462-12da-11e6-91da-096d89bd2173.html#axzz4AKE4BM9k . 1 June 2018.
    8. . .
      Andrew Hilton (1994) UK Financial Supervision: A Blueprint for Change (Centre for the Study of Financial Innovation (CSFI), London).
    9. . .
      Anon (2003) ‘Power Failure Rocks Malawi’s Telecoms’ (PANA Press), http://www.panapress.com/Power-Failure-Rocks-Malawi-s-Telecoms--13-475501-18-lang1-index.html . 29 June 2018.
    10. . .
      Anon (2007) ‘Malawi Mobile Phone Network Goes off the Air’ (Click Afrique), http://www.clickafrique.com/Magazine/ST010/CP0000002372.aspx . 29 June 2018.
    11. . .
      Anon (2016) ‘What Is the Bristol Pound?’ (Bristol City), http://bristolpound.org/what . 13 September 2018.
    12. . .
      Benjamin J Cohen (2008) ‘The International Monetary System: Diffusion and Ambiguity’ International Affairs 455, http://escholarship.org/uc/item/97r5n8jx . 4 October 2018.
    13. . .
      Bill Maurer (2011) ‘Mobile Money Regulation: A Story Arc of Best Practices and Emerging Realizations’ Notes from the Field (December 2011), http://faculty.sites.uci.edu/wmmaurer/files/2011/12/Note_Dec2011_IMTFI.pdf . 15 December 2018.
    14. . .
      https://doi.org/10.3167/ca.2012.300202
    15. . .
      Bjørn S Aamo (2012) ‘FATF’s Focus on Financial Inclusion: Protecting the Integrity of the Global Financial System’ (Global Partnership for Financial Inclusion Conference on Standard-Setting Bodies and Financial Inclusion: Promoting Financial Inclusion Through Proportionate Standards and Guidance) Basel. 29 October 2012, http://www.fatf-gafi.org/publications/fatfgeneral/documents/fatfsfocusonfinancialinclusionprotectingtheintegrityoftheglobalfinancialsystem.html . 20 February 2018.
    16. . .
      https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011445620486
    17. . .
      Bryane Michael (2014) ‘The “Twin Peaks” Regulatory Model: The Future of Financial Regulation?’ Banking Today, http://www.law.hku.hk/aiifl/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Twin-Peaks.pdf . 3 October 2018.
    18. . .
      Case Concerning the Payment of Various Serbian Loans Issued in France (France v. Serbia) and Payment in Gold of the Brazilian Federal Loans Contracted in France (France v. Brazil) PCIJ Rep Series A Nos 20–21 Permanent Court of international Justice, http://legal.un.org/PCIJsummaries/documents/english/PCIJ_FinalText.pdf . 7 November 2018.
    19. . .
      César Córdova-Novion and Deirdre Hanlon (2002) ‘Regulatory Governance: Improving the Institutional Basis for Sectoral Regulators’ 2 (3) OECD Journal on Budgeting, https://www.oecd.org/gov/budgeting/43505850.pdf . 15 February 2018.
    20. Charles Goodhart (1988). .
      Charles Goodhart (1988) The Evolution of Central Banks (MIT Press Books, Cambridge).
    21. . .
      Charles Goodhart and Dirk Schoenmaker (1995) ‘Should the Functions of Monetary Policy and Banking Supervision Be Separated?’ 47 (4) Oxford Economic Papers 539, http://oep.oxfordjournals.org/content/47/4/539.extract . 12 February 2018.
    22. . .
      Chris Hunt (2016) A Short History of Prudential Regulation and Supervision at the Reserve Bank (Bulletin, Reserve Bank of New Zealand, Wellington), http://www.rbnz.govt.nz/-/media/ReserveBank/Files/Publications/Bulletins/2016/2016aug79-14.pdf . 1 May 2018.
    23. . .
      Chris Skinner (2015) ‘When Everyone on the Planet Has a Mobile Money Account, Things Will Change’ (24 June 2015), http://thefinanser.com/2015/06/when-everyone-on-the-planet-has-a-mobilelectronic-money-account-things-will-change.html/ . 9 February 2018.
    24. . .
      Clive Briault (1999) The Rationale for a Single National Financial Services Regulator (Occasional Paper Series, Financial Services Authority, London), http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.468.6859&rep=rep1&type=pdf . 12 May 2018.
    25. Dalvinder Singh (2007). .
      Dalvinder Singh (2007) Banking Regulation of UK and US Financial Markets (Ashgate Publishing, Aldershot, Hampshire).
    26. . .
      Daniel K Tarullo (2016) ‘Financial Regulation Since the Crisis’ (Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland and Office of Financial Research 2016 Financial Stability Conference) Washington, DC. 2 December 2016, https://www.federalreserve.gov/newsevents/speech/tarullo20161202a.htm . 1 May 2018.
    27. . .
      David Blair (2013) ‘The FSA Is Dead; Long Live the FCA, the PRA and the FPC’, http://www.osborneclarke.com/connected-insights/publications/the-fsa-is-dead-long-live-the-fca-the-pra-and-the-fpc/#sthash.PzXxYUIX.dpuf . 3 March 2018.
    28. . .
      David Porteous (2006) The Enabling Environment for Mobile Banking in Africa (Report Commissioned by Department for International Development [DFID], Boston), http://bankablefrontier.com/wp-ontent/uploads/documents/ee.mobil_.banking.report.v3.1.pdf . 14 September 2018.
    29. . .
      Development of Postal Services in 2011: A Few Key Figures (2011) (Universal Postal Union), http://www.alejandrobarros.com/media/users/1/50369/files/4363/Statistics_2011_UPU.pdf . 10 May 2018.
    30. . .
      ECB (2002) The Role of Central Banks in Prudential Supervision (European Central Bank), https://www.ecb.europa.eu/pub/pdf/other/prudentialsupcbrole_en.pdf . 1 May 2018.
    31. . .
      https://doi.org/10.1017/S1566752907002376
    32. . .
      Ernesto M Flores-Roux and Judith Mariscal (2010) ‘The Enigma of Mobile Money Systems’ (79) Communications & Strategies, ftp://ftp.repec.org/opt/ReDIF/RePEc/idt/journl/CS7903/CS79_MARISCAM_FLORES-ROUX.pdf . 14 February 2018.
    33. . .
      FATF (2012) International Standards on Combating Money Laundering and the Financing of Terrorism & Proliferation (updated October 2016) (Financial Action Task Force), http://www.fatf-gafi.org/media/fatf/documents/recommendations/pdfs/FATF_Recommendations.pdf . 20 February 2018.
    34. . .
      FATF (2016) ‘Financial Action Task Force’ (FATF), http://www.fatf-gafi.org/ . 15 December 2018.
    35. . .
      FCIC (2011) The Financial Crisis Inquiry Report: Final Report of the National Commission on the Causes of the Financial and Economic Crisis in the United States (The Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission, Washington, DC), https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/GPO-FCIC/pdf/GPO-FCIC.pdf . 1 May 2018.
    36. . .
      Finance Bank of Malaŵi Ltd (In Voluntary Liquidation) v Reserve Bank of Malawi and Attorney General Constitutional Cause No. 5 of 2010 High Court (Constitutional Division), http://www.malawilii.org/mw/judgment/high-court-general-division/2013/451 . 9 March 2018.
    37. . .
      Financial Crimes Act (2017).
    38. . .
      Financial Crimes (Suppression of Terrorist Financing and Proliferation) Regulations, 2017, Government Notice No. 11 of 2017 (Malaŵi).
    39. . .
      Financial Services Act (Malaŵi, 2010).
    40. . .
      Financial Services Act, UK (United Kingdom, 2012).
    41. . .
      Financial Services (Fit and Proper Requirement for Persons Associated with Ownership and Management of Securities Market Players) Directive 2015 (Malaŵi), https://www.rbm.mw/Supervision/GetContentFile/?ContentID=6457 . 20 July 2018.
    42. . .
      Francis N Ngwu (2014) ‘Promoting Formal Financial Inclusion in Africa: As Institutional Re-examination of the Policies with a Case Study of Nigeria’ 16 (14) 306 Journal of Banking Regulation, http://link.springer.com/article/10.1057/jbr.2014.13. 15 December 2018.
    43. . .
      Frank Phiri (2005) ‘Finance Bank Closure: Precursor to Return of Forfeiture Act?’ (Malawiana), https://groups.yahoo.com/neo/groups/MALAWIANA/conversations/topics/3175 . 23 February 2018.
    44. . .
      Friedrich August v Hayek (1990) Denationalisation of Money—The Argument Refined: An Analysis of the Theory and Practice of Concurrent Currencies (3rd Ed) (Institute of Economic Affairs, London) Chapter III.
    45. . .
      G-10 (2001) Chapter III: Effects of Consolidation on Financial Risk in Report on Consolidation in the Financial Sector (Group of 10, IMF, Washington, DC), https://www.imf.org/external/np/g10/2001/01/Eng/pdf/file3.pdf . 1 June 2018.
    46. . .
      Garry J Schinasi (2003) Responsibility of Central Banks for Stability in Financial Markets (IMF Working Paper, Washington, DC), https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2003/wp03121.pdf . 1 June 2018.
    47. . .
      George Ngigi ‘M-Pesa Linked to Rise in Inflation’ Business Daily (14 February 2012), http://www.businessdailyafrica.com/M-Pesa-linked-to-rise-in-inflation/-/539552/1327538/-/13rogmr/-/index.html . 28 March 2018.
    48. . .
      Guidelines for Mobile Payment Systems (Malaŵi, 2011).
    49. . .
      Gunther Teubner (1983) ‘Substantive and Reflexive Elements in Modern Law’ Law and Society Review 239, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3053348 . 18 November 2018.
    50. Heidi Mandanis Schooner (2010). .
      Heidi Mandanis Schooner and Mark W Taylor (2010) Global Bank Regulation: Principles and Policies (Academic Press, Burlington, MA).
    51. . .
      Hyun Song Shin (2009) ‘Reflections on Northern Rock: The Bank Run That Heralded the Global Financial Crisis’ 23 (1) The Journal of Economic Perspectives 101, http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/089533009797614045 . 4 October 2018.
    52. . .
      Ignacio Mas and Daniel Radcliffe (2011) ‘Mobile Payments Go Viral: M-PESA in Kenya’ 32 The Capco Institute Journal of Financial Transformation 169, http://www.capco.com/sites/all/files/journal-32_article-16.pdf . 15 December 2018.
    53. . .
      Ignacio Mas and Olga Morawczynski (2009) ‘Designing Mobile Money Services Lessons from M-PESA’ 4 (2) Innovations 77, http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/itgg.2009.4.2.77 . 20 May 2018.
    54. . .
      Interview at Reserve Bank of Malaŵi Headquarters (RBM HQ) on 6 August 2015.
    55. . .
      Interview with Webster Mbekeani Head, Mobile Money Division, TNM (20 August 2015).
    56. . .
      Jane Fuller (2010) ‘The King Is Dead; Long Live the King’ Financial World, http://fwarchive.ifslearning.ac.uk/financial_world/Archive/2010/2010_07July/Comment/Jane%20Fuller/pdf/18908.pdf . 28 February 2018.
    57. . .
      Jennifer Isern and Louis De Koker (2012) AML/CFT: Strengthening Financial Inclusion and Integrity (CGAP Focus Notes, CGAP, Washington, DC), http://dro.deakin.edu.au/eserv/DU:30020790/dekoker-amlcft-2009.pdf . 14 November 2018.
    58. . .
      Jennifer Isern and others (2005) ‘AML/CFT Regulation: Implications for Financial Service Providers That Serve Low-Income People’ 29 CGAP Focus Note, https://www.cgap.org/sites/default/files/CGAP-Focus-Note-AML-CFT-Regulation-Implications-for-Financial-Service-Providers-That-Serve-Low-Income-People-Jul-2005.pdf . 10 May 2018.
    59. . .
      Jeroen Kremers and Dirk Schoenmaker (2010) ‘Twin Peaks: Experiences in the Netherlands’ December 2010 LSE Financial Markets Group Paper Series, http://www.lse.ac.uk/fmg/workingPapers/specialPapers/PDF/SP196.pdf . 4 October 2018.
    60. . .
      Jonathan Greenacre, Louise Malady and Ross Buckley (2014) The Regulation of Mobile Money in Malawi (Centre for International Finance and Regulation, New South Wales), http://www.uncdf.org/sites/default/files/Documents/the_regulation_of_mobile_money_in_malawi_project_report_final_version.pdf . 30 June 2018.
    61. . .
      Joseph Noko (2011) ‘Dollarization: The Case of Zimbabwe’ 31 (2) Cato Journal, https://www.ciaonet.org/attachments/18686/uploads . 14 September 2018.
    62. Kenneth Kaoma Mwenda (2006). .
      https://doi.org/10.1596/978-0-8213-6459-8
    63. . .
      Kevin P Donovan (2012) ‘Mobile Money, More Freedom? The Impact of M-PESA’s Network Power on Development as Freedom’ 6 International Journal of Communication 2647, http://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/1575 . 20 May 2018.
    64. . .
      Louis de Koker (2013) ‘The 2012 Revised FATF Recommendations: Assessing and Mitigating Mobile Money Integrity Risks Within the New Standards Framework’ 8 Wash JL Tech & Arts 165.
    65. . .
      Macro-Prudential and Micro-Prudential Regulation (Chapter 2) The Warwick Commission (2009) in The Warwick Commission on International Financial Reform: In Praise of Unlevel Playing Fields (University of Warwick), https://www2.warwick.ac.uk/research/warwickcommission/financialreform/report/uw_warcomm_intfinreform_09.pdf . 2 June 2018.
    66. . .
      Malaŵi Government (2015) ‘Commencement of Universal and Compulsory Birth & Death Registration and Issuance of Certificates’ (Government of Malaŵi), https://www.facebook.com/malawigovernment/posts/439708072882359 . 21 July 2018.
    67. . .
      Malcom Webb and others (2014) Mobile Money Regulation (WebbHenderson, Sydney), http://webbhenderson.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Mobilelectronic-money-Regulation-April-2014.pdf . 9 February 2018.
    68. . .
      Marc Quintyn and Michael W Taylor (2002) Regulatory and Supervisory Independence and Financial Stability (International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC), https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2002/wp0246.pdf . 1 February 2018.
    69. Maureen Burton and Bruce Brown (2014). .
      Maureen Burton and Bruce Brown (2014) The Financial System and the Economy: Principles of Money and Banking (Routledge, Abingdon, Oxon).
    70. . .
      Michael Malakata (2015) ‘Power Problems Disrupt Africa’s Telecom Sector’ (PCWorld), http://www.pcworld.com/article/2926892/power-problems-disrupt-africas-telecom-sector.html . 29 June 2018.
    71. . .
      Michael Tarazi and Paul Breloff (2010) Nonbank Electronic Money Issuers: Regulatory Approaches to Protecting Customer Funds (Focus Note, CGAP, Washington, DC), https://www.cgap.org/sites/default/files/CGAP-Focus-Note-Nonbank-Electronic-money-Issuers-Regulatory-Approaches-to-Protecting-Customer-Funds-Jul-2010.pdf . 3 February 2018.
    72. . .
      Michael U Klein and Colin Mayer (2011) Mobile Banking and Financial Inclusion: The Regulatory Lessons (Policy Research Working Paper, The World Bank), http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/docsearch/document-type/620265 . 14 February 2018.
    73. Michael W Taylor (1995). .
      Michael W Taylor (1995) “Twin Peaks”: A Regulatory Structure for the New Century (Centre for the Study of Financial Innovation, London).
    74. . .
      Michael W Taylor (2011) ‘The Road from “Twin peaks”—And the Way Back’ 16 (1) Connecticut Insurance Law Journal 61, http://insurancejournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/Abstract-21.pdf. 3 October 2018.
    75. . .
      Milton Friedman (1971) ‘The EuroDollar Market: Some First Principles’ Review (Federal Bank of St Louis) 16, https://research.stlouisfed.org/publications/review/71/07/Principles_Jul1971.pdf . 13 September 2018.
    76. . .
      Mona Naqvi and James Southgate (2013) ‘Banknotes, Local Currencies and Central Bank Objectives’ Bank of England Quarterly Bulletin Q4, http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/publications/Documents/quarterlybulletin/2013/qb130403.pdf . 4 October 2018.
    77. . .
      Money Laundering and Proceeds of Terrorism Act (Malaŵi, 2006).
    78. . .
      National Registration Act (Malaŵi, 2010), https://www.globalintegrity.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/Malawi-NATIONAL-REGISTRATION-ACT.pdf . 21 July 2018.
    79. . .
      Nick Hughes and Susie Lonie (2007) ‘M-PESA: Mobile Money for the “Unbanked” Turning Cellphones into 24-Hour Tellers in Kenya’ 2 (1–2) Innovations 63, http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/itgg.2007.2.1-2.63 . 15 December 2018.
    80. . .
      https://doi.org/10.1016/j.telpol.2012.04.002
    81. . .
      https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-84822-8_19
    82. . .
      Olga Morawczynski and Mark Pickens (2009) Poor People Using Mobile Financial Services: Observations on Customer Usage and Impact from M-PESA (CGAP Brief, August, CGAP, Washington, DC), http://www.cgap.org/publications/poor-people-using-mobile-financial-services . 29 April 2018.
    83. . .
      ‘Prudential Regulation Authority’ (2017) Bank of England, http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/pra/Pages/default.aspx . 1 May 2018.
    84. Richard J Herring (2000). .
      Richard J Herring and Anthony M Santomero (2000) ‘What Is Optimal Financial Regulation?’ in Benton E Gup (ed) The New Financial Architecture (Quorum Books, Westport, Connecticut).
    85. Robin Hui Huang and Dirk Schoenmaker (2014). .
      Robin Hui Huang and Dirk Schoenmaker (2014) Institutional Structure of Financial Regulation: Theories and International Experiences (Routledge, London).
    86. . .
      Robleh Ali and others (2014b) ‘The Economics of Digital Currencies’ 54 Quarterly Bulletin (Bank of England), http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/publications/Documents/quarterlybulletin/2014/qb14q3digitalcurrenciesbitcoin2.pdf . 14 September 2018.
    87. . .
      Rose Cunningham and Christian Friedrich (2016) The Role of Central Banks in Promoting Financial Stability: An International Perspective (Bank of Canada Staff Discussion Paper 2016–15, Bank of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario), http://www.bankofcanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/sdp2016-15.pdf . 1 May 2018.
    88. . .
      Roger E Backhouse (1991) ‘Money’ in Applied UK Macroeconomics (Basil Blackwell, Oxford).
    89. . .
      Ross Buckley, Jonathan Greenacre and Louise Malady (2015) ‘The Regulation of Mobile Money in Malawi’ 14 (3) Washington University Global Studies Law Review 435, http://openscholarship.wustl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1536&context=law_globalstudies . 3 February 2018.
    90. . .
      Ruby Szarowicz (2016) ‘Bringing Bristol Pound to Massive Attack at the Downs’ Bristol Pond Our City Our Money (Bristol, 6 September 2016), http://bristolpound.org/blog/ . 13 September 2016.
    91. . .
      Simone Di Castri (2013) Mobile Money: Enabling Regulatory Solutions (GSMA, London), http://www.gsma.com/publicpolicy/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/GSMA2013_Report_Mobilelectronic-money-EnablingRegulatorySolutions.pdf . 20 February 2018.
    92. . .
      The Committee of Scottish Bankers (2016) ‘Scottish Banknotes Legal Position’ The Committee of Scottish Bankers (Edinburgh), http://www.scotbanks.org.uk/legal_position.php . 13 September 2018.
    93. . .
      Timothy Lyman (2016) ‘Regulation and Supervision’ (CGAP), http://www.cgap.org/topics/regulation-and-supervision . 21 May, 2018.
    94. . .
      Tom de Swaan and Others (1995) The Supervision of Financial Conglomerates (Tripartite Group of Bank, Securities and Insurance Regulators, Madrid), https://www.iosco.org/library/pubdocs/pdf/IOSCOPD47.pdf . 3 October 2018.
    95. . .
      https://doi.org/10.1093/0199270562.003.0008
    96. V Sundararajan (2005). .
      V Sundararajan and Others (2005) Financial Sector Assessment (World Bank & International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC).
    97. . .
      Vincent P Polizatto (1992) ‘Prudential Regulation and Banking Supervision’ in Dimitri Vittas (ed) Financial Regulation: Changing the Rules of the Game (The World Bank, Washington, DC).
    98. . .
      Will Mutua (3 June 2012) ‘How M-Pesa Disrupts Entire Economies’, http://memeburn.com/2012/03/how-m-pesa-disrupts-entire-economies/ . 28 March 2018.
    99. . .
      William Jack and Tavneet Suri (2011) ‘Mobile Money: The Economics of M-PESA’ (National Bureau of Economic Research), http://www.nber.org/papers/w16721 . 15 December 2018.
    100. . .
      William Stanley Jevons (1875) ‘Barter’ in Money and the Mechanism of Exchange (D. Appleton and Company, New York).
    101. . .
      XE (2018) ‘XE Currency Converter’ (XE), https://www.xe.com/currencyconverter/convert/?Amount=1&From=GBP&To=MWK . 10 November 2018.
    102. . .
      Yvonnie Sundu (2016) ‘APM Says National IDs Will Transform Malawi’ The Nation (28 October 2016), http://mwnation.com/apm-says-national-ids-will-transform-malawi/ . 14 November 2018.